Reference (Periodontal Disease and Alzheimer)

Kittner, S. J. & Taylor, B. L. (2024) Oral health and brain health: Cause, consequence, or confounding? Neurology 102.
This review examines whether poor oral health is causative, consequential, or merely correlated with cognitive decline. The authors emphasize the complexity of establishing causality and the importance of longitudinal and interventional studies to clarify mechanisms linking oral and brain health.

Liu, Q. (2023) Treatment of various stages of periodontitis and prevention of periodontitis. Highlights in Science, Engineering and Technology 45.
This study reviews stage-specific treatment strategies for periodontitis, highlighting its high prevalence in older populations and associations with systemic conditions, including AD. Emphasis is placed on early intervention and preventive measures to reduce systemic inflammatory burden and preserve cognitive and oral health.

Zhang, M., Mi, N., Ying, Z., Lin, X. & Jin, Y. (2023) Advances in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease based on oral bacteria. Front. Psychiatry 14.
Oral bacteria are proposed as contributors to systemic and neuroinflammation in aging populations. The authors review how dysbiosis, particularly plaque accumulation and periodontal pathogens, may accelerate AD pathogenesis and propose microbiome-targeted interventions, lifestyle modification, and emerging preventive strategies such as vaccination and pharmacotherapy.

Sari, K. I., Fauziah, R. A., Sarilita, E., Ong, P. A., Purba, A. & Widyaputra, S. (2022) Periodontal status in patients with Alzheimer’s disease: a scoping review. Majalah Kedokteran Gigi Indonesia 8, 1.
A scoping review of 60 studies demonstrates that individuals with AD often show poor oral hygiene, high plaque and calculus scores, increased bleeding on probing (BOP), and clinical attachment loss (CAL). The review suggests a progressive decline in periodontal tissue health parallel to cognitive deterioration, underscoring the need for integrated oral care in dementia management.

Xuebing, B., Lujun, Z., Wenzhen, L. & Yaqin, Z. (2022) Research progress in association of neurological disorders and periodontal diseases. Chin. J. Stomatol. 57.
Chronic periodontal disease is highlighted as a contributor to systemic inflammation and neuroinflammation, potentially exacerbating neurological disorders including AD, Parkinson’s disease, and multiple sclerosis. The authors advocate oral health maintenance as a preventive approach for neurological disease management.

Yang, I., Arthur, R. A., Zhao, L., Clark, J., Hu, Y., Corwin, E. J. et al. (2021) The oral microbiome and inflammation in mild cognitive impairment. Exp. Gerontol. 147.
Using 16S rRNA sequencing, this study identifies differential abundance of Pasteurellaceae and Lautropia mirabilis in individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Associations with cerebrospinal fluid inflammatory markers suggest oral dysbiosis may contribute to early AD pathogenesis, highlighting a potential avenue for early diagnostic biomarkers.

Holmer, J., Eriksdotter, M., Schultzberg, M., Pussinen, P. J. & Buhlin, K. (2018) Association between periodontitis and risk of Alzheimer’s disease, mild cognitive impairment and subjective cognitive decline: A case–control study. J. Clin. Periodontol. 45, 11.
Marginal periodontitis is significantly associated with early cognitive impairment, including AD. Increased prevalence of deep periodontal pockets and alveolar bone loss highlights oral disease as a potential early indicator or contributor to cognitive decline.

Harding, A., Gonder, U., Robinson, S. J., Crean, S. & Singhrao, S. K. (2017) Exploring the association between Alzheimer’s disease, oral health, microbial endocrinology and nutrition. Front. Aging Neurosci. 9.
The study proposes that poor oral hygiene leads to dysbiosis dominated by Porphyromonas gingivalis, resulting in systemic inflammation that may trigger or exacerbate AD. Dietary factors and probiotics are explored as modulators of oral and gut microbiomes, suggesting potential avenues for reducing neuroinflammatory risk and promoting cognitive health.

Sochocka, M., Sobczyński, M., Sender-Janeczek, A., Zwolińska, K., Błachowicz, O., Tomczyk, T. et al. (2017) Association between periodontal health status and cognitive abilities. The role of cytokine profile and systemic inflammation. Curr. Alzheimer Res. 14, 9.
Cognitive impairment combined with periodontitis amplifies systemic inflammation, suggesting that managing periodontal disease could mitigate progression of dementia and AD.

Fatimah, D. N. (2017) Pengaruh literasi keuangan terhadap perilaku keuangan mahasiswa. Skripsi.
This study demonstrates that coexisting cognitive decline and poor periodontal health increase systemic inflammation, which may accelerate neurodegenerative processes. It underscores the potential bidirectional relationship between oral health and cognitive function.

Ide, M., Harris, M., Stevens, A., Sussams, R., Hopkins, V., Culliford, D. et al. (2016) Periodontitis and cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s disease. PLoS ONE 11, 3.
Baseline periodontitis in AD patients is linked to a six-fold accelerated cognitive decline over six months, likely mediated through systemic pro-inflammatory pathways, supporting a mechanistic connection between oral inflammation and neurodegeneration.

Uppoor, A. S., Lohi, H. S. & Nayak, D. (2013) Periodontitis and Alzheimer’s disease: Oral systemic link still on the rise? Gerodontology 30, 3.
This review examines the growing evidence that chronic periodontitis, through systemic inflammation, may accelerate or contribute to neuroinflammatory processes implicated in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The authors highlight how aging populations and increased prevalence of dementia make understanding oral–systemic links critical for early prevention strategies.

Tornwall, R. & Chow, A. K. (2012) The association between periodontal disease and the systemic inflammatory conditions of obesity, arthritis, Alzheimer’s and renal diseases. Can J Dent Hygiene 46, 2.
This review emphasizes the inflammatory link between chronic periodontitis and systemic conditions, including AD. While studies support correlation, the authors note the lack of conclusive causal evidence, highlighting the need for mechanistic and longitudinal research.

Ship, J. A. & Puckett, S. A. (1994) Longitudinal study on oral health in subjects with Alzheimer’s disease. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 42, 57–63.
Over a 2–3 year period, the study showed that individuals with AD experience reduced salivary flow and poorer oral health than controls. Findings emphasize the importance of coordinated preventive care between dental and medical professionals to maintain oral function and quality of life in cognitively impaired adults.

Narengaowa, Wei, Lan, Awan, Farooq, Hong & Ni, Junjun (2021) The Oral-Gut-Brain Axis: The Influence of Microbes in Alzheimer’s Disease. Front. Cell. Neurosci. 15, 633735. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2021.633735

This review explores the role of oral and gut microbiota in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), highlighting how microbial dysbiosis may contribute to neurodegeneration. Oral microbes can reach the brain via cranial nerves or cellular pathways, while gut microbiota and their metabolites modulate microglial activity and neuroinflammation. The article emphasizes the oral-brain, gut-brain, and oral-gut-brain axes as critical pathways influencing AD development and suggests that understanding these mechanisms could support early intervention strategies.